Outline of the clinical characteristics of depression

Outline of the clinical characteristics of mental pictureThe formal diagnosis of major slack requires five of the following symptoms and yard of serious distress or failure to function in perfunctory life. The following symptoms must be present for roughly of the time everyplace a minimum period of devil weeks.Symptoms of slump Sad low mood and belief or behaving sad and empty exposelet of following and pleasure in usual activitiesDifficulty in sleeping ( insomnia or hypersomnia )Lethargic or agitatedAppetite ( loss so freight loss or increased so weight gain )Loss of energy or grrust fatigueNegative self-importance supposition feeling of valuelessness and guilt.Difficulty in concentrating ( slowed thought or irresoluteness )Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide. moot two or to a greater extent psychological accepts of effectcognitiveViews about the worldPsychologist Aaron Beck suggested depression is the result of banly charged thinking and catastrophising which h e called cognitive errors. (Beck 1991) of importtained there argon collar components to depression which he called the cognitive triad.The cognitive triad.Views about oneselfViews about the proximoAs the cognitive triad components interact they interfere with normal cognitive operateing which past leads to cossetments in recognition, memory and line of work solving, the someone then sticks obsessed with negative thoughts.In addition to the cognitive triad beck believed that depression prone idiosyncratics develop a negative self schema which factor they possess a set of beliefs and expectations about themselves that argon negative and pessimistic, which leads on to feeling and symptoms of depression. Negative self schemas brush aside be acquired in puerility as a result of a traumatic level(p)t much(prenominal) as the death of a p atomic number 18nt or sibling, p atomic number 18ntal rejection, bulling at home or school for physical exertion. People with negative se lf schemas become prone to reservation logical errors in their thinking and they tend to focalisation selectively on certain aspects of a situation while ignoring every bit relevant information this is called cognitive tortures. An slip of a cognitive distortion is someone believing that someone is whispering about them and they automatically get hold of it must be bad, ignoring the fact they could be whispering something good. Cognitive distortions take on the following Arbitrary interference drawing conclusions on the basis of commensurate or irrelevant exhibit for face thinking you are worthless because a show you were going too was give the bouncecelled.Selective abstraction cogitate on a iodine aspect of a situation and ignoring some others for example you feel responsible for your netball team losing a game even though your just one player on the team.Over generalisation making a sweeping conclusion on the basis of a single event. Failing an exam, this content you will fail all exams and that you are stupid. hyperbole and minimisation exaggerating or underplaying the signifi preservet of an event for example you scratch the blushing mushroom work on your car and therefore see yourself as a terrible driver.Personalisation This is attributing the negative feelings of others to yourself for example your friend enters the room looking mental unsoundness you believe you must mother upset her.Beck also suggested that that there individual differences that determine the suit of event that can trigger depression for example sociotrapic mortalalities base their self esteem on the approval of others where as an autonomous somebody would react badly to their independence being challenged.The cognitive hypothesis is one of the most influential models that apologise negative thought processes. It explains that our stirred reaction seems to come from how we interpret and predict the world around us. The important problem with the cognitive ap proach to depression is that the possibility is correlational, and that the argument is a circular one. Does depression cause negative thinking, or does negative thinking cause depression? Also it is a theory which is wakeless to interrogation and search plenty seeking help for depression already have negative emotions and so it is non practicable to access their cognitive process prior to the onset of the dis coordinate.Secondly when participants are foot raceed in research they are lots already on drugs to manage the depression which could bear upon the result of the study. Finally thoughts are subjective experiences that are hard to test and measure which make proving the theory irresponsiblely difficult. A positive of the cognitive approach to depression is that it has many useful applications and has contributed to our understanding of human phenomenon and it has compound well with other approaches.The psychodynamic business relationship of the causes of depression The psychodynamic approach to understanding depression focuses on how the unconscious motives drive our behaviours and experiences. Freud chronicle of depression lies in the aboriginal relationships with are parents, he noned that there is a similarity between grieving for a loved one and the symptoms of depression.Freud described depression as an excessive and irrational grief which occurs as a reaction to a loss, this loss evokes feelings associated with real or imagined affection from the person on whom the person was most pendents as a child. Both actual and symbolic losings lead us to re experience parts of our childhood, thus people with depression become clingy, dependant and can even regress to a child like state.Evaluate psychodynamic therapy in the treatment of depressionIn support of the psychodynamic theory people with depression do show dependant like behaviours as they often feel that they cannot manage everyday activities and blaspheme heavily on others. In suppor t of Freud theory on depression and understanding depression from the psychodynamic approach is Harlows research on privation conducted on rhesus monkeys garbled from their mothers at birth, using surrogate mothers, a wire mother and a cloth mother he demonstrated that a mothers love was essential for a persons mental health. The experiment showed that infant monkeys separated from their mothers displayed signs of depression.In support of the psychodynamic approach to depression and frauds theories this approach is idiographic and so focuses on the individual. This means that the individuals problems are taken into account and they are not just diagnosed on the bias of others. A negative point on the psychodynamic theory is there is little experimental evidence for Frauds theories as most of his work was base upon case studies, this makes the approach highly subjective and un-testable as his finding were often biased to fit his theories, mho to this frauds theory is often charac terised as unscientific as it is difficult to observe and measure concepts much(prenominal) as actual and symbolic losses and regression. Also the case studies apply to test Freuds psychodynamic theory were mainly middle aged, upper class, Austrian women. This means that his findings cannot be generalised to the wider population.This is also a problem as he developed his ideas on childhood from adults talking retrospectively of their pasts which is a problem because people recall information differently and memory and feelings fade.The ethical implications of psychodynamic therapyguiding therapy- due to the unconscious cause of the psychological problems and the resistance patients put up to the unconscious truths, the patient must trust the therapists description and instructions. However analytic thinking does occur under voluntary conditions.Psychoanalysis can be sort of anxiety provoking as it can reveal disturbing repress experiences. It is a humane form of treatment as it does not convict or judge the patient, who is not responsible for their problems.Outline the clinical characteristics of schizophrenic psychosisThere are positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenic psychosis Positive symptoms are things additional to expected behaviour and include delusions, hallucinations, agitation and talkativeness.Negative symptoms which are things missing from expected behaviour, negative symptoms include a lack of indigence , social withdrawal , flattened affect, cognitive disturbances, poor personal hygienics and poor speech.Other characteristics of schizophrenia include-Auditory or visual hallucinations tied(p) emotionsDelusionsDisorganised speechCatatonic or disorganised behaviourGive two or more psychological explanations of schizophreniaCognitive explanation for schizophreniaCognitive explanations for schizophrenia acknowledge the role of biological factors much(prenominal) as genetic causes and a change of brain activity for the cause of ini tial sensory experiences of schizophrenia. However further features of the infirmity appear as the individual attempts to understand them. The cognitive approach also suggests that schizophrenia is characterised by profound thought disturbance, this could be d declare to cognitive defects which can impair areas such as perception and memory. This could form cognitive biases and explain misconceptions and the instruction schizophrenia sufferers interpret there world. Schizophrenics normally first discover symptoms of voices and antidromic sensory experiences , this normally leads them to a friend or family member to verify the experience when the experience is not confirmed this can lead to rejection of support. This leads to a belief that people around them are hiding the truth and the person with schizophrenia believes they are being manipulated and persecuted. This shows the basis of schizophrenia is biology establish however other symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions are formed after the failure to not except there reality these of which are cognitive. In support of the cognitive approach to schizophrenia Firth (1979) proposes that disruption to an attention puree mechanism could result in the thought disturbances of schizophrenia, as the sufferer is overladen with sensory information. Studies on continuous performance and eye tracking t carrys forecast schizophrenics do show more attentional problems than non schizophrenics. This means that perhaps minify short term memory capacity could account for some schizophrenics cognitive distractibility.Hemsley (1993) suggested schizophrenics cannot distinguish between information that is already stored and new incoming information. As a result, schizophrenics are subject to sensory overload and do not know which aspect of a situation to attended to and which to ignore.One force of the cognitive explanation when describing schizophrenia is that there is further support for this theory provided by M yer-Lindenberg ( 2002) they found a link between poor works memory ( which is typical of schizophrenics ) and reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex. what is more Schielke (2002) studied a patient who developed continuous auditory hallucinations as a consequence of an abscess in the dorsal pons. This suggests that there is wider academic credibility for the link between biological and cognitive factors causing schizophrenia. A second strength of the cognitive explanation of schizophrenia is that it takes on board the raising approach to the development of schizophrenia. For example it suggests that schizophrenic behaviour is the cause of environmental factors such as cognitive factors. A weakness of the cognitive explanation is that there are problems with cause and effect.Cognitive approaches do not explain the causes of cognitive defects -where they come from in the first place. Is it the cognitive defects which cause schizophrenia behaviour or is it the schizophrenia that c auses cognitive defects. A second weakness of the cognitive model is that it is reductionist the approach does not consider other factors such as genes. This suggests that the cognitive approach over simplifies the explanation of schizophrenia.The behavioural explanation of schizophrenia.The behavioural explanation suggests that schizophrenia is a consequence of haywire learning children who do not receive small amounts of reinforcement previous(predicate) in their lives will put monstrousr attention into irrelevant environmental cues, for example Taking attention to the sound of a word quite than its actual meaning. This behaviour will eventually appear weird or strange to others so will generally be avoided. Strange behaviours may be rewarded by attention and sympathy and so they are reinforced. This can continue until the behaviour becomes so strange that the person is then label as schizophrenic. Eventually the behaviour and psychological state deteriorates into a psychoti c person state.Evaluate cognitive behavioural therapies in the treatment of schizophrenia in terms of its strengths and weaknesses.The misinterpretation of events in the world is common in schizophrenia. apply cognitive therapy with schizophrenia requires the psychologist to accept that the cognitive distortions and disorganized thinking of schizophrenia are produced, at least in part, by a biological problem that will not cease simply because the correct interpretation of reality is explained to the client. Cognitive therapy can only be successful if the psychologist accepts the clients perception of reality, and determines how to use this misperception to assist the client in correctly managing life problems. The ending is to help the client use information from the world (other people, perceptions of events, etc.) to make accommodative coping decisions. The treatment goal, for the cognitive therapist, is not to be cured _or_ healed schizophrenia, but to repair the clients ab ility to manage life problems, to function independently, and to be free of extreme distress and other psychological symptoms.AdvantagesIt directly challenges the problem and attempts a cure of the under lying symptoms.It gives the person some control over their own illness.Research has shown cognitive behavioural therapy can be as potent as medicationDue to its highly structured nature cognitive behavioural therapy can be provided in a number of formats such as soft ware and self help books.DisadvantagesIn align to benefit from cognitive behavioural therapy you need to ensure you give a considerable amount of commitment which people with schizophrenia can lack.It could be argued that because cognitive behavioural therapy only addresses current problems it does not address fundamental causes of the condition.Discuss the ethics of cognitive behavioural therapyDirective therapy due to the environmental determinism of behavioural problems, patients need to be re programmed with ada ptive behaviour.Stressful can be painful and disturbing e.g. swamp and aversion therapyHumane special maladaptive behaviours are targeted the whole person is not labelled.Outline the characteristics of anorexiaRefusal to bear on body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age and height.Intense fear of gaining weight randomness in the right smart in which ones body weight or spring is experienced, denial of the seriousness of the current low body weight.Absents of three unbowed periods.Socially withdrawnRefusal to eat despite hungerGive two or more psychological explanations of alimentation upsetsCognitive explanation of anorexiaCognitive psychologist has suggested that irrational attitudes and beliefs and distorted perception are involved in take in disorders. These beliefs normally equal unrealistic ideals or perception of body human body or irrational attitudes towards eating habits and dieting. For example the disinhibition hypothesis once a diet has been broken one might as well get away it completely by bingeing.Cognitive researchers have also proposed that suffers of anorexia are seeking to assert control over their life to an excessive idealistic extent. Bemis- Vitousek and Orimoto (1993) pointed out the kind of faulty cognitions that are typical in people with anorexia.For example a common cognition is that dieting is a means of self control, but at the same time most people with anorexia are aware they are out of control because they cant stop dieting, even when it is threatening there life. These are faulty cognitions and maladaptive ways of thinking.The main problem with the cognitive explanation is that the theory is correlational and the argument is a circular one does negative thinking cause the eating disorder or does the eating disorder cause the negative thinking. Secondly the thoughts that are related to having an eating disorder are subjective experiences that are hard to test and measure, Also people seeking help fo r an eating disorder are already have negative emotions so it is not possible to test their cognitive processes prior to the onset of the disorder.Psychodynamic explanation of anorexiaOne beguile of the psychodynamic model of anorexia proposes that anorexia reflects an unconscious desire by a girl to checkout pre-pubescent. Over dependence on parents may result in the juvenile fearing sexual maturity and independence. Bruch (1974) regarded anorectics as being in a struggle for control and their own identity, the pursuit of thinness was seen as a unfavourable part of such a struggle. Bruch considered that there were two main characteristics of parents that make the development of anorexia more likely in their children. Firstly an over concern with food and secondly family relationships that did not assist the child in underdeveloped their own sense of identity particularly important was considered to be girls feeling that their needs were secondary to their mothers.The psychody namic approach in relation to eating disorders is idiographic and so it focuses on the individual. This means the individuals problems are taken into account and they are not just diagnosed on the basis of others. There is little evidence for Freuds theories on eating disorders it is all based on feeling quite an than hard evidence. All his case studies were a mainly middle aged, Austrian woman which means his findings cannot be generalised to the wider population. However Freuds idea that the anorexics refusal to eat was an unconscious denial of the adult role and they wished to remain a child. The quantify of onset in anorexia and the loss of menstruation supports this idea.Evaluate behavioural therapy in the treatment of eating disorders.Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a common type of treatment for eating disorders. This branch of psychotherapy aims to help break large problems or situations into smaller more manageable parts and treats eating disorders in this same way. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a branch of psychotherapy that is based on the idea that all thoughts (cognition) and actions (behaviors) are related.This may not unendingly be clear, so CBT aims to help individuals break down problems or situations into more manageable parts and examine the ways in which thoughts, emotions and actions were related in each other. Cognitive behavioral therapy allows individuals to examine the relationships between their thoughts, feelings and actions and in doing so allows individuals to understand that if they change the way that they think and feel, they will change the way that they act. For individuals suffering from eating disorders, understanding the relationships between thoughts, emotions and actions is highly important. Once these relationships are understood, the individual suffering from an eating disorder can replace the negative thoughts and emotions which have led to abnormal food and eating behaviors and with more positive thoughts a nd emotions that will lead back towards a healthy lifestyle. However, in order for these relationships to be clear, it may take several weeks of tracking thoughts, feelings and food and eating behaviors before the individual will accept this proof. Often therapists will ask individuals to keep a journal or food diary in order to more accurately record their thoughts, feelings and actions towards food and eating during a given period of time.Discuss the ethics of behavioural therapyBehavioural therapy can induce a high level of anxiety which could be considered unethical Directive therapy due to the environmental determinism of behavioural problems patients need to be re programmed with adaptive behaviour.Stressful can be painful and disturbing e.g. flooding and aversion therapyHumane specific maladaptive behaviours are targeted the whole person is not labelled.

Concept of Risk in Construction Industry

supposition of run a encounter in Construction intentness3.1 General lucksThe meaning of jeopardize of exposure forms when time goes on and the meanings resist when they argon at the specific socio-cultural and diachronic contexts which we argon located in. (Deborah Lupton, 1999) jeopardize is exposure to the possibility of economic or financial loss or gain, physical damage or injury, or delay, as a core of the shyty associated with pursuing a specific course of activeness (Cooper, Chapman, 1987). match to Cornelius Keating, put on the line is non the present problem which should be immediately addressed, but it is considered as future issues that toilet be b ard or mitigated. Risk is considered as a situation which whitethorn consider to contradict consequences. Gener solelyy, six major(ip) categories of find scum bag be de frontierine as the more or less momentant concerns for the majority. They atomic teleph oneness number 18environmental lucks, inc luding pollution, radiation, chemicals, floods, fires, dangerous passage conditions and so onLifestyle trys, which re previous(a)d to the consumption of such(prenominal) commodities as food and drugs, engagement in sexual activities, driving practices, stress, leisure and so onMedical jeopardizes, which related to experiencing medical c be or discourse. much(prenominal) as drug therapy, surgery, childbirth, reproductive technologies and diagnostic testsInterpersonal attempts, related to paint a picture relationships, social interactions, love sexuality, gender roles, friendship, marriage and pargonntingstinting run a lucks implicated in unemployment or under-employment, borrowing money, investment bankruptcy, destruction of property, also-ran of a trading and so on andCriminal jeopardizes atomic number 18 those put on the lines emerging from being a participant in or effectiveness victim of illegal activities.(Deborah Lupton, 1999)3.2 Risks in Construction assiduit y3.2.1 The Concept of Risk in Construction IndustryThe crook industry experienced a wide variety of run a attempts which whitethorn reach in financing, boding, constructing and managing facilities of a bug knocked out(p). There be different definitions of lay on the line in eddy industry. In determine to understand the serve well of risk precaution, it is classic to understand the basic construct of risk in all aspects. The international standard tolerate risk focus Application guidelines? holds the guess of luck and consequence and defines risk as a combination of luck of an event which is occurring and its consequences to confuse headings (IEC 2001). Ward and Chapman (2003) shoot do a broader definition of risk and suggest employ a much general concept of misgiving. They argue that risk is considered as threats but not opportunities and when it occurs it affects the mould capital punishment. Edwards (1995) points pop out that risks have a negative pe rtain on the expulsions cost, quality or time in most situations. These definitions have a common feature they define risk in ground of uncertain events and may have positive or negative impact on a understands objectives.According to An (2010), risk interpretations fag be considered as the nextThe same as the word approximateThe consequence of an unwelcome import or failureChances of achieving a given government issueSignifies dangerTaking a chance in an activityAn (2010) argues the term risk traverse be defined in the two components the probability of occurrence of the risk and the magnitude of the consequences if the risk happened. And the relationship is written in the formula Risk = consequences x probability. The general trend of risks is shown in the strain 3.1 below. When the probability of occurrence is gamy, the consequences of risks seem to be low and vice versa. Risks with major or severity consequences r bely happen, but risks which atomic number 18 or have low consequences tend to happen frequently.Figure 3.1 Consequences versus probability trend (An, 2010)As mentioned above, the equation seems to be simple, however, the most alpha thing is to understand and front the probability of occurrence and the severity of consequences and express those using returns.3.2.2 Risk mixtureProject risks gage be categorized in a number of substances by considering the level of detail or a selected viewpoint. (Anna Klemetti, 2006) Categorizing risks pull up stakes do help in identifying risks.According to the study of National Economic Development Office, construction risks can be broadly rooted in the following categoriesTechnical Risks include poor design, inadequate point investigation, and uncertainty over the source and handiness of materials and appropriateness of preconditions.Logistical Risks include availableness of resources such as construction equipments, spare parts, fuel and labour and availability of sufficient transportat ion facilities.Construction Risks include uncertain productivity of resources, conditions or seasonal implications and industrial relations problems.Financial Risks include inflation, availability and fluctuation of foreign exchange, delay in payment, repatriation of coin and local taxes. regimenal Risks include constraints on the availability and employment of expatriate staff, customs and import restrictions and social functions, difficulties in disposing of aimt and equipment and insistence on using of local firms and agents. twain Smith (2006) and An (2010) argue that all despatch risks can be split up into exact main categories known risks, known unknowns and unknown unknowns. The difference amidst the categories is the decreasing ability to predict or foresee the risks. Table 3.1 presents a drawing ex inventation nearly these three categories of risks.Table 3.1 Categories of risks (An, 2010)Known risksIncluding electric shaver variations in productivity and swings i n material costs. These occur frequently and are an inevitable feature of all construction contrives.Known unknownsIncluding the risk events whose occurrence is predictable. Either their probability of occurrence or their likely effect is known. extraterrestrial being unknownsThose events whose probability of occurrence or their likely effect is unknown.Risk resources can as well be divided into quad elements trivial, expected, punt and risk watchfulness. flatts with a low impact are not serious and can be divided into the elements of trivial and expected. For the high impact and low probability, these events are hazards which office occur but are too remote to be considered. (An, 2010)Taking into retainer of the probability of the occurrence and the consequence for aim objectives, those events that have high probability and high impact are subjected to risk attention. Figure 3.2 shows the classification of risk resources.Figure 3.2 Classification of risk sources (Smith, 20 06)The causes of risk are various and depending on the size, complexity, novelty, location of the forecast as well as on the hotfoot of construction and political or commercial plan. Long-term jumps are thought to be more risky because the possibility of something going wrong is large to appear and the need for immediate plans of action that allow change is fundamental. The sources of risk are presented in Table 3.2.Table 3.2 Sources of risk (Thompson, Perry, 1992)Source moralClient, Government, regulatory agenciesBureaucratic delays, changes in local regulationsFunding, fiscal transmutes in government funding policy, liaison betwixt several fundersDefinition of imageChange in project scopeProject organisationAuthority of project manager, involvement of outside bodiesDesignAdequacy to meet need, realism of design programmeLocal conditionsLocal customs, weather windowsPermanent plant interpretDegree of novelty, damage or loss during transportationConstruction contractorsExperi ence, financial stabilityConstruction materialsExcessive wastage, quality, deliveryConstruction labourindustrial relations, multi-racial labour forceConstruction plantResale value, spares availabilityLogisticsRemoteness, access to siteEstimating dataRelevance to specific project availabilityInflation tack ratesForce majeureIt is important to use the table as the eldest note in risk assessment process in locate to identify all the relevant risks of the construction project. By identifying all the construction risks in the early stage of risk assessment process, successful risk counsel can be earnd. Failing to identify risks in the risk recognition stage is a hazard to the risk management process. (Perry and Thompson, 1992)Moreover, risks can be classified based on the ability of the project to condition them. A separation of risk as a local, global and native is based on the controlling ability of project parties on risks. As a result, this rule acting helps to identify 80% of the risk, the last may not be worthwhile looking for, and a few of these risks could not be reasonably foreseen. (Smith, 2006) Figure 3.3 shows the hierarchy of set risks.Figure3.3 Hierarchy of set risks (Smith, 2006)Project parties have to manage the manageable risks by the settled found and attain to feature the challenges of the unmanageable risks. The preparation can get the losses ca utilise by the unmanageable risks. Besides, some global risks can be compactd for sure. mixed bag of risks would definitely help to identify risks. No matter what method is used to identify the risks, it is important that risks should be set and assessed carefully, which is even more important in the early stages of the project since it impart affect the decision devising of the project participants.3.2.3 Importance of Risk prudence in the Construction IndustryChange is inherent in construction work. When an uncertain event occurs, it will impact some of objectives such as the cost, schedule, and quality of the project. Construction projects practically have a poor performance due to a privation of reasonable risk management process. (Liu Renhu, 2005) Many projects fail to meet deadline or cost and quality targets. As a result, risk management becomes an important part of construction management. Risk management intends to identify and manage those possible and unforeseen problems that might probably occur during the project implementation. And also, it tries to identify as many risk event as possible minimize their impact on the project, manage the resolutions to those events that are probably to materialize, and provide contingence funds to cover risk event that actually materialize. The essential purpose of risk management is to improve project performance via clayatic assignment, appraisal and management of project related risks. The focus on reducing threats or ill outcomes, which we might call downside risk, misses a key part of the overall pictur e. (Chapman, Ward, 2003) Changes cannot be eliminated, however, by applying risk management in project construction participates are able to improve the construction management. The gather of risk management can be concluded as followsProject issues are clarified, understood and considered from ariseDecisions are supported by thorough analysisThe definition and twist of the project are continually monitoredClear understanding of specific risks associated with a projectBuild-up of historical data to dish up future risk management procedures. (An, 2010)3.2.4 Project PlanningThe control of time cannot be affected insularism from resources and costs. Project planning methods should consider the communication with all the parties in a project in order to identify sequences of activates and draw attention to say-so problem areas. Careful and continuous planning contributes to successful construction project. Sequences of activities will be defined and linked to a time-scale to ensur e that priorities are identified and efficient use of costly or scare resources. However, since the uncertainty occurs during construction, the plan will always change and it must be updated quickly and regularly in order to maintain the most efficient way of terminate the project. In developing a controlling plan, it is vital to distinguish between different categories of change and to fully instigate the formal aspect of the project. (An, 2010) alone the parties and resources involved in construction have influences on project plan. However, project plan will change when uncertainty occurs. The purpose of planning is to stoop slew to perform proletariats before they delay. A framework of decision make in case of change occurs should be included in project planning. (Smith, 2006)3.3 Risk circumspection in the Construction Industry3.3.1 Risk watchfulness schemeBoth client and contractor are concerned about the projects risk allocation. Generally, the client or the project owner has an overall risk management strategy and policy included in the strategic documents and quality management system. Risk management strategy is shown in encipher 3.4. vigilance of project riskFigure 3.4 Risk Management Strategy (Smith, 2006)The most important issues which the project owner concerned in risk strategy are risk ownership and risk financing. Risk ownership is explained as which party owns the risks and risks expose and transfer. Risk financing can be explained as how to include and use budget of risk payment or contingency. The participants make decisions, which affect the responsibilities of the parties, to define the organization and procedures of a project. (An, 2010) It influences the construction, commissioning, change and risk of a project and this is how it affects the construction processes. (Smith, 2006)3.3.2 Process of Risk Management3.3.2.1 IntroductionRisk management is one of the most critical project management practices to ensure a project is s uccessfully completed. (Chapman, 1997) The purpose of risk management in construction industry can be verbalise as followingTo be competitive in meeting the clients specifications with solutions that are cost-effective at an acceptable level of risk (An, 2010).To successfully achieve the goals in any projects, the following four aspects need to be met scrapSpecificationCost-effectiveRisksIt is important to consider the four criteria as a whole. There are two major objectives managing risk one is to avoid the downside risks and the new(prenominal) is to exploit opportunities. Risk management is a process of delimitate the need for identifying, estimating and evaluating risks in order to control them at an acceptable level. (An, 2010) The risk management system is shown is figure 3.5.Figure 3.5 risk management frame work (An, 2010)Four aspects are involved in risk management, which are hazard identification, risk assessment, risk cut back or risk response and tinge preparedness. These will be introduced in the following paragraphs.3.3.4.2 Hazard appellationHazard identification is the first-year tone of the risk management process. It is aimed at determining probable risks which may affect the project. Ideally, all the potential risks and hazards should be identified when the decision is being made so that the participants can deal with before they occur. However, although prevention is let on than cure, no risk management system can identify all the risks and hazards in advance. (Martin Loosemore, 2006) In this way, hazard identification needs to be carried out carefully in order to reduce the potential risks in the project.As the first step of risk analysis, hazard identification is the most important one as it helps to identify the potential risks whose effects act as an impediment to the project, and this process will also help with risk mitigation and control. A general definition of hazard is stated as followingA hazard is an undesirable outcome in the process of meeting ant objective, performing a task or engaging in an activity (An, 2010).The undesirable outcome of a hazard could involveInjury to personnelDamage to property contaminant to the environment andA combination of all the above (An, 2010)Risk identification is one of the most important steps of risk management because it makes the risks clearer. As a result, Chapman (2001) points out that the success of later risk management phases is nowadays affected by the quality of the identification phase. Risk identification procedure identifies and categorizes risks that could affect the project. This procedure includes discovering, defining, describing, documenting and communicating risks before they become problems and affect a project. (Barati, S.,Mohammadi, S., 2008) Risk identification is a tool for identifying all the significant sources and causes of risk and hazards in a project. Numbers of methods and proficiencys are used in identifying the project risks (IEC 2001), including brainstorming, expert opinion, structured interviews, questionnaires, checklists, historical data, previous experience, testing and modelling and evaluating other projects.Perry (1992) points out the most popular methods of hazard identification. They areChecklists prepared by experienced people that are involved in the project.Brainstorming sessions where groups of people are trying to come up with potential risks through communion and exchange of ideas.Historical data of previous similar projects that can assist in the portraying of risks.Interviews of key participants of the project or experts involved with it.These techniques are to provide a systematic approach for identifying potential hazards in construction industry. (An, 2010) Empirical studies of risk management practice (Lyons, Skitmore2004) show that the checklists and brainstorming are the most useful techniques in risk identification. And they also point out that risk identification often rely on ind ividual judgments of the project participants.Another method applied for the identifying risk events is the HAZOP study (Hazard and Operability). This is a technique using guide-words? in order to study deviation from the design objective of a project and its elements. (An, 2010)A helpful action would be to group the risks and separate them into specific categories afterwards the first stage of risk identification. This would benefit the risk assessment process by applying a satisfactory technique to each category and furthermore in the selection of a risk management response for each type. (An, 2010) in construction industry three main types of hazards which need to be interpreted into account are the followingsManagement Hazards Associated with management and organizational issues, such as policy, commitment of funds for training, and the project of specific equipment and schedules to be met.Commercial Hazards Arise from commercial considerations, and particularly associated wit h decisions on spending. A typical example is the selection of a less expensive material that just meets the minimum standard required instead of opting for the more expensive item with huge specification and a track get down of high quality. whatsoevertimes a contract is accepted as a cost below the desired level, and savings have to be made in order to complete the work. This in turn may lead to potential hazards due to commercial factors.Time Hazards Many projects need to be completed by an agreed date. Delays due to the factors such as late delivery of materials, unforeseen production difficulties or failure to meet specification would affect the ability to meet deadline. As a consequence of failure to meet the deadline, it could affect future contracts and disrupt the schedules. All these events can be considered as hazards or time hazards.Each project has different associated hazards, which differ from various technology or organizations or anything else applied in the proje cts. A checklist of construction hazard drivers is shownFinancial HazardsLegal HazardsPolitical HazardsSocial HazardsEnvironmental HazardsCommunications HazardsGeographical HazardsGeotechnical HazardsConstruction HazardsTechnological HazardsDemand/product Hazards (An, 2010)after hazard identification, the potential hazards can be listed and grouped. Then, risk assessment method can be applied to build the risk level.3.3.4.3 Risk discernmentOnce risks have been identified, they must then be accessed. The sources of risks should be identified first, and then the effects of the risks should be assessed or analyzed. Risks can be assessed any using a quantitative or qualitative analysis. (Thompson, Perry, 1992)Qualitative Methods The first step of the qualitative analysis is also the first step of risk assessment risk identification, which is described above as the first step of risk management. Then, an assessment of the probability of occurrence and impact of the risks should be tak en out. Qualitative risk assessment usually includes the following issuesA brief description of the riskThe stage of the project when it may occurThe elements of the project that could be affectedThe factors that influence its occurrenceThe relationship with other risksThe likeliness of its occurrenceHow it could affect the project (Smith, 2006)Using qualitative methods is the first step of risk assessment. Then, a quantitative assessment is only for the risks whose further culture is required. These risks are usually serious and can jeopardise the project.Quantitative Methods According to Barrow (2007), there are four reasons why risk should be managed to minimize delays, to reduce cost, to improve return on investment, to increase the number of opportunity. Possible consequences of risk occurring are defined and qualified in terms ofIncreased cost such as superfluous cost above the estimate of the final cost of the projectIncreased time such as additional time beyond the comple tion data of the project through delays in construction decreased quality and performance such as the extent to which the project would fail to meet the user performance based on quality, standards and specification. (Smith, 2006)Several methods can be used in risk assessment and risk metrics method is going to be introduced. Risk metric is a two-dimensional presentation of likelihood and consequences using qualitative for both dimensions, event modelling is a systematic way to identify accident scenarios and quantify risk. (Ayyub, 2005)Estimating the probability and impact of risk in simple scales, such as from 1 to 5 or from high to low, is the most common way, and boundaries can also be numerically defined. Risk can be characterized by probability and consequence, and examples are given in table 3.3 and table 3.4.Probability of OccurrenceScaleDescriptor1Rare2Unlikely3Possible4 in all likelihood5Almost CertainTable 3.3 Probability of Occurrence (An, 2010) pass judgment of conseque ncesScaleDescriptor1Insignificant2Minor3Moderate4Major5SevereTable 3.4 rank of consequences (An, 2010)As mentioned in pervious paragraph, Table 3.5 shows that risks can be allocated in three regions.Table 3.5 Risk Matrix (An, 2010)ConsequenceProbability123455 bearable permissible impossibleIntolerableIntolerable4Negligible adequateTolerableIntolerableIntolerable3NegligibleTolerableTolerableTolerableIntolerable2NegligibleNegligibleTolerableTolerableIntolerable1NegligibleNegligibleNegligibleTolerableTolerableAnd this can also be replaced by two curves, as its shown in figure 3.6.Figure 3.6 Graphical presentation of risk regions (An, 2010)During risk assessment, identified risks are evaluated and ranked. The goal is to prioritise risks for management. The assessment of the risks leads the hazards to be classified in a region, which would determine the importance (risk level) of each hazard, and the possible regions are the unacceptable, tolerable or the negligible region. Figure 3.7 shows the risks listed in the appropriate regions.Figure 3.7 Output of risk assessment element (An, 2010)The risks are allocated in three regions, after that, the risks should be selected the risk response to them.3.3.4.4 Risk ResponseOnce the risks are identified and assessed, the next step of the risk management procedure is to response to these risks. The spirit of the response depends on the decisions made by the management team. In order to respond correctly, the team has to process the information available for the risk. There are two types of responses to risks immediate response and contingency response. The immediate response mitigates or eliminates the risks through alterations of the project plan. The nature of contingency response is preparing a plan for an alternative course of action and implementing it when the risk arises. (An, 2010)There are four basic ways of responding to risk and they are risk retention, risk transfer, risk reduction and risk turning away. In o rder to effectively manage a risk, it is necessary to adopt a combination of strategies to treat it. The selection process can be iterative until the most effective treatment strategy is developed. (Smith, 2006)AvoidanceRisk avoidance deals with the risks by eliminating the risks through changing the project plan or certain features. Another way of risk avoidance or reduction is re-design or changing the method of construction. (Perry, Hayes, 1985) However, there are only a few situations this response can be used.ReduceRisk reduction aims at reducing the probability and consequences of a risk event. The measures should be taken with consideration of the value for money. Reducing the level of risks could boot the cost. Only when the value of the reduced risk is beyond the cost it caused, this method can be taken. Risks can be reduced byObtaining additional informationPerforming additional tests/simulationsAllocating additional resourcesImproving communication and managing organisat ional interfaces(An, 2010) afterwards risk assessment, hazards are allocated in the intolerable, tolerable and negligible regions. There are some guidelines for risk reducing.Hazard in the intolerable region risks in this level should be eliminated or cost-effective cannot be achieved. As a result, the project should be considered for abandoning.Hazard in the tolerable region to reduce risks in this region, two aspects should be considered. One is whether the risk is close to the intolerable region, the other one is whether it is a cost-effective reduction process. It is better to reduce the risk no matter how expensive it might cost in dealing with the first situation. For the second consideration, it is better to reduce the risk and checking carefully of its allocation.Hazard in the negligible region it is recommended that these hazards should be left alone, since they are not worth to reduce. (An, 2010)TransferRisk transfer is to transfer risks from one party to another. This wou ld happen between parties in a project or between one party in the project and one outside. (An, 2010) Some contractual obligation can also be used as risk transfer method, because no one is willing to accept a risk without any form of compensation. Generally, it is better to transfer the risks to the parties who can go around control them.Acceptance or RetentionIf the other methods fail to adequately or fully treat the risk, the project has to be prepared to accept the risk or any residual risk remaining after some initial treatment. The party which is holding a risk may be the only one that can manage the risk or accept the consequences. If the risk is under control of this party, the likelihood of happening or inform the impact of the risk could be reduced.It is possible for a risk to have a number of potential treatment equally suitable but varying in cost. The selection of a final treatment must be made as cost-effective. The cost of managing the risk should be commensurate w ith the benefits obtained. The risk response process is directed at identifying a way of dealing with the identified and assessed project risks. Risk reduction is the most frequently used technique within the construction industry. Managing the risks of a project is a rather difficult task. Choosing any form of treatment may itself expose the project to additional risks. In this way, attention should be nonrecreational to ensure that the treatment strategy does not expose the project to greater risk than what the original risk was designed to treat.3.3.4.5 Emergency PreparednessEven when the pervious risk management processes have been well applied, accidents happen occasionally. The goal of compulsion preparedness can be concluded as the followingTo be prepared to take the most appropriate action in the event that hazard becomes a reality so as to minimise its effects and, if necessary, to transfer personal from a location with a higher(prenominal) level to one with a lower risk level. (An, 2010)Regarding the management of risk, an emergency preparedness is the preparation of contingency plans and courses of action in case the risk arises during construction. The emergency preparedness could also be an alternative course of action prepared as a contingency plan.3.4 ConclusionRisk management intends to identify and manage those potential and unforeseen problems that might probably occur during the project implementation. And it could identify as many risk event as possible, minimize their impact to the project, manage the responses to those events that are probably to materialize, and provide contingence funds to cover risk event that actually materialize. Precaution is better than cure. The same principle can be applied to risk management which should be a proactive approach rather than a reactive one. Risk management is a preventive process to ensure that negative impacts are reduced and that harmful consequences associated with undesirable events are min imized. Generally, the risk management process should include risk identification, risk assessments, risk response and emergency preparedness. Once risk has been identified, they must then be accessed on their potential severity of loss and the probability of occurrence. Then through the following stages such as risk avoidance, reduction, retention or risk transfer, the risks can be dealt with and its impact can be decreased to a certain extent.

Perceptions And Attitudes Towards Hiv Health And Social Care Essay

Perceptions And Attitudes Towards Hiv health And Social Cargon EssaySince the first sayed baptistry of benevolent immunodeficiency virus/ support in 1981, the affection has had a devastating effect on all components of our society and has become the well-nigh deadly infectious unhealthiness epidemic in recent times. The ailment is seen as a brat to the stability of entire nations and regions affecting the most productive members of the society. forgiving immunodeficiency virus/ assist has become a global phenomenon, how of all time the disease is most pronounced in developing countries particularly Sub-Saharan Africa. The expand of the disease has reached epidemic proportions in most parts of the Afri crowd out unstained (WHO 2007).The twists of citizenry infected with human immunodeficiency virus keeps on increasing particularly among the new-made plenty. The estimated number of persons living with human immunodeficiency virus worldwide in2009 is 33 million. African continent alone had 22.5 million of the worlds estimated 33 million great deal living with human immunodeficiency virus/ help (UN back up/WHO 2007).UNAIDS estimates paradeed that young spate under 25 accounted for almost 45% of all new human immunodeficiency virus cases ( everywhere 6800 tidy sum become infected with human immunodeficiency virus every solar day) in adults in 2007. The disease detains to ravage Sub-Saharan Africa and it remains the most serious of infectious disease that challenges Africa. The leading former of death in Sub-Saharan Africa is human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS (Tanaka, Kunii, Hatano Wakai 2007).It is true human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS continues to spread among the race of urban communities in Rwanda, with its heavy toll on the 15 49 year age groups, who propose the economically productive area of the countrys economy. Kanombe and Muhima Districts are urban communities in Kigali City Province, which has seen increase in the spread of h uman immunodeficiency virus/AIDS. Urban districts are part of the worst human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS preponderance in Rwanda. As at 2006 it had prevalence target of 5.1% far laid-backer(prenominal) than the rural average of 2.1 the same year. Rwanda is among the ten countries in Africa most severely affected by HIV/AIDS. The country is cladding a generalized epidemic. content estimates indicate that in 2006, the adult prevalence rate is in the range of 3.1% among the general population (WHO 2007).Behavioral entropy serve as an early warning dodge and submit cultivation to guide program design and evaluate interventions. In addition, the data provide information that can explain HIV prevalence trends.Prevention supports of presenter agencies and the government require been working assiduously to curb the HIV/AIDS epidemic save there has not been any carryable simplification in the prevalent rate within Kigali City Province. A critical question here is what could hav e accounted for this? Prevalence in 15-24 eld group shows an increase trend though efforts have been made to leaden down the spread. preadolescent female adolescents are vulnerable and may be influenced into high- jeopardy appearances. The gab betwixt male-female percentage regarding safe use in Rwanda is 40.9 and 19.7 evaluateively (WHO 2007).The aim of this film was to investigate the association, perceptions, and attitudes of adolescents towards HIV/AIDS in order to institute meaningful preventive measures for the interpret of HIV/AIDS in Kigali City urban community. The findings of this lease can be added to the existing body of knowledge on HIV/AIDS in Kigali City Province and in Rwanda as a whole. The findings of this study will help policymakers and healthcare professionals to develop adolescent centered, all-round and intensifier programs that will curtail the spread of HIV in the province.2. LITERATURE freshen up2.1 HIV/AIDS DefinitionHIV is the short form of gracious Immunodeficiency virus, the virus that perk ups AIDS. (Levy. 1993). AIDS is an abbreviation for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Simply put Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which destroys the cells in the human body that combat infections. Dr. Samuel Border, formerly at the National Cancer Institute in the United States of America, reminds us the biography of HIV/AIDS. He said In June of 1981 we saw a young gay man with the most devastating immune deficiency we had ever seen. We said, we dont know what this is, but we hope we dont ever see an another(prenominal) case like it again (WHO 1994).On 5th June, 1981, AIDS was first reported in Los Angeles, California. (Centers for Disease Control 1981). According to Broder S 1984 cited by Katrak 2006, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV 1) was discovered in 1983 as the root cause of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (Katrak 2006).Kahende (2001), in hi s thesis viewed HIV/AIDS as a cause as well as a symptomof underdevelopment. Its long incubation period makes it hard to predict the mixer and economic effects it may have on households and national development as a whole. The disease mostly affects individuals in their prime between the ages of 15 to 49 days and sizable number of those in this category will have study loving and economic effects in the long run (World border 2007, International Development Committee (IDC) 2001). The United Nations International Labor Organizations (ILO) report in Akukwe (2006), suggest that a minimum of 26 million sight worldwide living with HIV/AIDS are in the manpower with at least two-thirds of them living in Africa. The consequence of this is that the labor military capability in Africa will be in jeopardy in the go up future. The disease has an incubation period of about 8 years and soul infected with the virus could infect umteen other volume (Kahende, 2001). This way of life th at a person infected with HIV may not show any noticeable symptoms until between 8years to 10 years when the bodys immune system can no longer withstand the HIV virus. During this time umpteen more persons will have become infected around 6800 new infections per day at present) USAIDS (2007). This creates continuing rolling burden and a vicious musical rhythm of illness and deaths which effects could be perilous to the affected countries. This makes AIDS frequently more dangerous than other diseases since diseases without incubation periods can be well identified and treated (Kahende, 2001). Cure for HIV/AIDS has not been launch yet, however, anti-retroviral therapy can prolong the lives of individuals living with HIV/AIDS (Akukwe 2006). This therapy is however before long expensive and not available to majority of infected flock in sub-Sahara Africa (Fry 2007).2.2 Rwanda Country Profile2.2.1 Rwanda HistoryRwanda is a small, landlocked country in Central Africa with 9.7 milli on and a high population density (368 people per sq. km). Rwanda became independent in 1962 after colonization by Germany (1899) and Belgium (1919). In 1961 its noble government was formally abolished by a referendum and the first parliamentary elections were held. governmental turmoil over the sharing of power and access to opportunities resulted in explosions of heathenish violence which have marked much of the recent history of the country. A civil conflict pitting the Hutu-led government against the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), a Tutsi-led rebel movement, culminated in genocide, between April and June 1994. About 800,000 people were massacred by the forces and the extremist Interahamwe militia. The RPF overthrew the regime in June 1994.While the country is shortly at peace, Rwandans continue to struggle with the legacy of genocide. National rapprochement is a long-run endeavor that has the full commitment of the governing and the support of the international community. The Rwandan Government has undertaken significant measures to consolidate reconciliation including the continuation of the demobilization and reintegration project for ex-combatants and a model of democratization focused on a decentralized judiciary (World Bank 2009).2.2.2 Economic and Social ProgressRwanda has made remarkable get along with since the 1994 genocide and civil war. Peace and political stability have been re-established, reconciliation efforts are continuing, and democratic institutions and processes are being strengthened. Poverty and social indicators have also improved. Rwanda has been able to maintain overall macroeconomic stability and down extensive reforms which have contributed to a strong growth performance.Rwanda is on handle to achieve several of the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) MDG 2 on planetary primary education MDG 3 on gender equality and MDG 6 on HIV/AIDS and malaria. Net primary enrollment is currently 95 percent, with 97 percent enrollment of girls. However, low completion pass judgment and poor quality of basic education show that there are still major challenges to meeting MDG 2. HIV prevalence is estimated at about 3 percent with female infection grade (3.6 percent) substantially higher than those of males (2.3 percent). Rwanda is also on track to achieve the targeted reduction in malaria relative incidence (World Bank 2009).2.3 Adolescents and HIV/AIDSAdolescence is one of the most captivating and labyrinthine transitions in the life span. It is a period of tremendous adjustment for children and parents. As children transition from childhood to adulthood, they undergo many physical, emotional and behavioral changes. These changes embroil very fast physical growth, the rise of reproductive intimateity, new social roles, growth in thinking, feelings and morals. The sequence of pubertal changes is relatively predictable and accordant however, their timing is extremely variable (National Academies Press 1999, 1-2. ).Nearly 50% of the worlds population is under 25 (UNFPA 2003). The threat ofHIV pandemic to young people cannot be over emphasized as UNAIDS estimates showed that young people under 25 accounted for about half of all newHIV cases in adults in 2007 and more than half of them still lack accurate and oecumenical information about how to avoid exposure to the virus (USAID2008).The indication that less(prenominal) than 40% of young people globally have accurate and extensive knowledge about HIV (UNGASS indicator 13) is unacceptably low and then worrisome. Previous studies done in USA (DiClemente, Zorn, Temoshok, 1986 Bhattacharya, Cleland, Holland, 2000),Nepal (Mahat G Scoloveno 2006) and Turkey ( Savaser 2003) where adolescents in those studies knew of only get offual route of transmission. There is the need to step up HIV/AIDS education among the youth particularly in Sub-Sahara Africa where conglomerate cultures frown at sex education among adolescents.Young People between the ages of 15 to 24 accounts for 30% of all people living with HIV/AIDS (UNSAIDS 2001). The disease keeps on spreading especially among young people making it even harder to control. The HIV/AIDS epidemic remain unseeable to both young people and the society, people usually carry the disease for years without their knowledge. As a result, the epidemic is spreading among young people at an alarming rate.In sub-Sahara Africa, the situation looks gloomier. More than half of sub-SaharanAfrica have generalized HIV/AIDS epidemic, this means 5% or more of the youngpeople are infected (UNAIDS 2000). The youth constitute one-fifth of the worlds population and nearly two-fifths in the developing countries populations (Population Reference chest (PRB) 2000). All hands must be on deck to extirpate the trend in order to salvage our youth from the scourge of HIV pandemic, the future looks bleak if current situation must be allowed to continue.Young people have been designated as a group at high r isk of acquiring HIV/AIDS due to their involvement in knowledgeable experimentation and the use of recreational drugs. Vulnerability of young people to HIV/AIDS can be attributed to physical, social, economical and psychological features of adolescents (Offer, Ostrov, Howard, Atkinson, 1988, 270 Senderowitz, 1995). socially and economically, most adolescents are dependent and inexperienced therefore, they are unable to nourish themselves from infections, and have less access to health care than adults. Again, young peoples picture to HIV/AIDS increases as result of cultural practices that shape their behaviors. Adolescence is a stage where young people establish their sexual identities, in doing so they are faced with pressures from society as well as their peers.2.4 Adolescents knowledge, attitudes, perceptions and barroom of HIV/AIDSHIV/AIDS has caused indescribable suffering to millions of people world wide.The fight against the scourge and epidemic of HIV/AIDS is and conti nue to be one of the biggest challenges facing the world today. The impact of the disease touches on the lives of the global community in different predictable and unpredictable ways. though the severity of the crisis is obvious, biochemical and pharmaceutical development of vaccines continue to have check success current drugs available can suppress the virus but they do not cure HIV infections or AIDS (The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 2009).Therefore, promotion of taproom strategies needs to be intensified in order to halt the spread of HIV.It is now a common knowledge as reported in many studies that contagion of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) via sexual contact is the most common(UNAIDS 2002) and accounts for 75 to 85 percent of all infections(Royce, Sea, Cates, Cohen, 1997). Over the quondam(prenominal) two decades, rates of infection with sexually transmitted diseases have continued to increase among teenagers. Roscoe and Kruger (1990) in their article titled Late adolescents knowledge and its influence concluded that although adolescents knowledge of HIV transmission might have improved over the past few years, their risk-related behaviors remain unchanged. This, no doubt can be link to Adolescents sexual behavior and knowledge, attitudes, perceptions towards HIV/AIDS.Numerous studies have been done on adolescents sexuality, knowledge, attitudes, and/or behaviors relevant to AIDS in order to improve the over all sexual behavior of adolescents. It is important at this point to consider such surveys of adolescents. A random-sample surveyed by Strunin and Hingson (1987) of 860 adolescents, 16 to 19 years of age, concerning their knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors regarding AIDS indicated 70% were sexually active (having sexual intercourse or other sexual contact) but only 15% of them reported changing their sexual behavior because of concern about contracting AIDS, and only 20% of those who changed their behavior used effective methods.Several prominent studies showed high engagement in unsafe sexual behaviors such as sex with multiple partners, sex with unknown persons, as well as negative views about caoutchouc use, and a low rate of behavior change even after learning about HIV/AIDS (Buysse, 1996, Gray Saracino, 1989). This corroborates the suggestion that a moderate to high knowledge level of AIDS may not be a predictor of safe sexual behavior practices (Gray Saracino, 1989). However, a study conducted by Roscoe Kruger, (1990) of 300 late adolescents suggests that one-third had altered their sexual behavior as a result of fear of the disease. Available question on the effects of beliefs of susceptibility to AIDS indicates that adolescents and adults who report high perceived risk for AIDS practice safer sexual behaviors, whereas those who perceive low risk for contracting AIDS report practicing unsafe sexual behaviors (Gray Saracino, 1989 Villarruel, A.M., Jemmolt, Howard , Taylor, Bush, 1998).Youth education and prevention programs have been used as the primary means of change magnitude rate of HIV infections among adolescents, it can be summed up in three letters ABC(A=Abstinence, B=Be Faithful, C=Condoms). Barnett and Parkhurst (2005) have described abstention as the best followed by faithfulness to one partner and condom use as last. Anytime ABC is mentioned Ugandan situation comes to mind, in 1991, the government, thought process leaders and the people of Uganda had the courage to change the attitudes and behaviors that were spreading the HIV. A Harvard study in Uganda finds HIV rates drop 50% within octonary years. The study credits abstinence education in reducing HIV/AIDS in Uganda (Trafford 2002). Again, it has been argued that condoms have about 10-13% failure rate in preventing pregnancy and 10-20% failure rate in preventing HIV for several reasons. Museveni (2004) in his commentary on HIV titled Behavioral Change Is the altogether Way To Fight AIDS cited Uganda as being excellent in this direction it has successfully managed to bring the seroprevalence rate from 18.6% to 6.1% using just social vaccine (behavior change), approximately 70% reduction. Molomo 2008, National coordinator of NACA(National Action Committee on AIDS) said behavioral change is the responsibility of the individual and not the community. He explained the latter could provide enabling environment within which the former can effect behavioral change. Attitudes, beliefs, and/or intentions have been described by many theories as proximal determinants of behavior. Consequently, changes in attitudes toward abstinence and condoms, and Perceptions of personal risk or susceptibility to HIV should be the main goals in any HIV/AIDS prevention program.3. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYThe aim of this study is to investigate the knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes of adolescents (15-24) towards HIV/AIDS in order to institute meaningful preventive m easures for the control of HIV/AIDS.Ultimately, the study will provide information on permit intervention methods necessary for preventing HIV/AIDS among adolescents in the community.3.1 Research QuestionsWith respect to the theme of our inquiry, the following research questions shall be addressed1. What knowledge do adolescents in Kigali City Province have about HIV/AIDS?2. What are the perceptions and attitudes by adolescents towards HIV/AIDS preventions?3. Which preventive method(s) do they use?4. Do they perceive any risk of contracting/ get HIV/AIDS?4. RESEARCH METHODS AND DATA SOURCESQualitative research memory access will be used to address HIV/AIDS prevention among adolescents. Qualitative methodology or deductive approach according topope and Mays (1995) is used to explore, interpret or illustrate the actions and/or subjective experiences of research participants. In other words qualitative research tends to give a comprehensive data about human observations, thoughts an d feelings it tries to establish meaning from human life experiences.As the focus of our study is to investigate the knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes of adolescents and young adults towards HIV/AIDS and its prevention, a qualitative approach will allow the participants to press out their feelings and experiences genuinely (Punch 1998).

Does The Media Undermine Democracy In Malaysia Media Essay

Does The Media Undermine Democracy In Malaysia Media EssayThroughout the last decades, Malaysians prevail enjoyed regular elections and governmental stability. However, the stability slowly took a turn when the clutch of former Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim and the subsequent sentence of 15 years for charges of corruption, abuse of power, and sexual misconduct made the public dawdle its faith in the integrity of the establishments aims (Heufers, 2002) This the somehow added the growing number of detentions to a lower place the Internal Security Act (ISA) and separate repressive laws severely stake political competition, useicipation, and civil and political liberties.The media in Malaysia comprising of the mainstream that is mainly possess and controlled by the g everywherenment and the option media, a form of independent journalism. M some(prenominal) government leaders in the developing world would justify their control over the media in terms of jealously guarding and guiding its members towards the path of national discipline and to ensure that the media does not fall into the wrong hands (Mustafa, 2005) In other words, the government wants to take control of media so they can set the agenda in the minds of society.This already restricts a sense of nudeness in the mainstream media. Mustafa (2005) renderd in an analysis on the coverage of Malaysias 2004 planetary elections by quaternion mainstream newspapers (The Star, the New Straits Times (NST), Berita Harian and Utusan Melayu), the gibe number of news items that were overbearing towards BN among all four major newspapers were roughly 40% and above. The other part of the percentage went straight to new items that were negative towards the showdown. Only a minute number of news (4% and below) were negative new items towards BN. Mustafa (2005) also racylighted sample of headlines employ by these newspapers that gave an idea of slant news reporting Malaysians prefer Pak Lahs mess of Islam (NST, March 15 2004), Perlis merana jika pilih pembangang (Perlis suffers if opposition is voted) (Utusan Melayu, March 16 2004 ) This shows a high level of bias coverage within the highly influential mainstream newspapers during the 2004 general elections.Another research presented by Ramanathan (2008) consists of a two month content analysis on how the mainstream media presents their reports on the 2008 general elections. Choosing newspapers in four languages (English, Bahasa Malaysia, Tamil and Mandrin) and the new media internet, online newspapers and SMS as well as monitoring commentaries by selected television system channels such as RTM, CNN and Channel News Asia on a selective basis.According to research, the type of coverage done by five of the mainstream newspapers was sided towards pro-BN stories. 277 stories analysed from Utusan Malaysia has 155 pro-BN stories, 56 pro- opposition and 66 neutral. The Star had a total of 153 stories analysed, 100 were pro-BN an d only 22 were pro-opposition. Nanyang Siang Pau had 118 stories, 74 of them pro-BN and 26 pro-opposition. For Tamil newspapers, a qualitative analysis was undertaken that led to conclusions of since Tamil Nesan was being majority owned by Datin Indrani Samy Velu, the newspaper printed many stories featuring Dato Samy Velu and prominent MIC politicians and there were hardly any coverage given to Indian candidates form opposition political parties.The mainstream media weakens the openness of presenting political news to society. If democracy is all about the messs right to oppose, to return critiques with the role of media to influence the people, they ar not giving much of a decision or choice to begin with.Of course there ar minimal parts where the government values and would take into consideration the opinions of the people. For example, the government issue of teaching Maths and Science in English (PPSMI), society is discharge to give out comments and opinions on what they think about the topic. People argon writing in to newspapers, taking part in massive forums to state their opinion and to fight for what they stand for and the government values the opinion of the people in this case. Why cannot this be the same with political issues? After all, it is the political opinion and stands made by the public that would contribute to the democracy of the agricultural. well-nigh may say that the alternative works as a perfective tense place for independent journalism however it is still closely monitored by the authorities. Blogs and online publications are beginning to worry the Malaysian authorities enough to re-consider the be policy of non-regulation of the Internet and to call for some controls over the content (Ramanathan, 2008) A clear example was when rajah Petra Kamarudin, editor of alternative news ingress Malaysia Today was aerated with publishing a seditious clause on 25 May 2008 with the title, Lets send Altantuya murderers to hell. Raja was the first blogger to be charged under a sedition act where he claim prepare but refused to post bail. Six months after detention under the ISA, Raja was released with no charges being filed against him.AccountabilityThe tight gate-keeping and censorship practised by the government over the mainstream media influences the accountability of democracy. The government does not like reports that are too critical therefore the responsibility to forming a democracy awkward is limited due to the restrain in reporting.During the general election in 2008, Ramanathan (2008) analyzed two-months prior to and after the elections, the mainstream media did coverages on upbeat stories about Barisan Nationals chances and discount the oppositions chances. Among them were a two-page focus on Issues close to the heart featuring an in-depth interview with Abdullah, an article titled Guan Eng not a threat in Penang dismissed the chances of opposition leader Lim Guan Eng in capturing the state gove rnment in Penang and instead Lim won handsomely.With slanted reporting like this, the accountability of the government would be doubted by the public hence would give the public the opportunity to opt for something else which they did in the 2008 general election whereby BN suffered one of their worst lost because the public opted for an alternative media. This incident brought the alternative media to a different level when weblogs, text messages and copies of Internet-streamed videos became the more or less influential information sources for voters ahead that resulted in a surprise botch up to the BN) troupe, which has ruled the country for more than 50 years.The media holds the representative responsible for taking care of the the people so what happens when these politicians lose in an election? How would they wait on to accountability? The innocent death of Teo Beng Hock signifies a crisis of confidence in Malaysian democracy and accountability. Many critics, including tho se in the current government, argues that restrictions were put in place at a time when they were needed and that preventing public parole of certain issues is not only counter-productive but it is also futile (Ramanathan, 2008)With the second towards the alternative media and the growing public sphere, the results from the 2008 election are bound to claim about greater freedom of expression. Though the responsibility of the democracy is in hand, there are some heartening post-election developments The Home Affairs Ministry approved in April 2008 an application for a permit from the opposition Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) to publish its party newspaper. With such actions, this would indeed encourage and strengthen the accountability of the peoples perception towards the countrys democracy. refinementThe mainstream media needs to loosen its strings and start to bring greater media ease to unclog the clouds of uncertainty and doubt in the minds of society. The alternative media is not enough. parliamentary procedure needs to hear the truth from the government. Only then can the country achieve great democracy.

An Introduction About Aldi Commerce Essay

An Introduction About Aldi Commerce Es verbalizeThe reason of this assignment, analysis the Porters quintuple forces and cling to grasp and explain how tuition applied science affects the vocation (base of Porters quin forces and value chain) of ALDI. ALDI is a k straightwayn retail take a shit in UK, actu e re exclusivelyy last(predicate)y it a Germ some(prenominal) base task establishment, its one of a medium size of it grocery link up chain shop in UK, lat fewer years they be doing transaction in UK. Michel Porter has written variety legal opinion how do IT tendings an organisation to discover their goal and provide let on good of process for client, the activities what is doing by an organisation is influenced by IT, IT assist either commercial enterprise organisation to complete their reverse correctly and gaining increase substanti completelyy, tuition engineering science lead an organisation to achieve the final goals of it, breeding engi neering science is intermix of computer base work, study, development and application, which helps an organisation to analysis the performance of it, by victimization Information an organisation can understand how should its go frontward for next step, in be minor I am discussing how analyzed the Porters quintette forces in ALDI and how they marrows on the activities of ALDI, and the expression how IT helps an organisation (ALDI) to ameliorate and achieve its goal.02. An introduction well-nigh ALDIALDI is the short form of Albrecht Discount. Its a global obtain notice super marketplace chain based in Germ either. ALDI working in UK as a medium type of supermarket. The main carrefour of ALDI is daily necessary kin crossway, dairy food, vegetable , alcoholic crossway like wine ,beer ,whisky etc .ALDI in any case selling discrepancy type of dress for male, female and kids.ALDI is selling retail intersection, founded at 1913, founder Karl Albrecht and Theo Albrecht. The head office of ALDI is in Essen, Germany. Mathew Barness is CEO of UK operation.03. Competitors of ALDIlocal anesthetic superstoreOff licenceIcelandWait roseEven TESCO, Sainsbury, ASDA in any case competitors of ALDI.04. Porters five-spot forcesPorter finds out five things that work together to change the work of a competitor in a tune organisation (Michel E Porter-2003). Those all ar-Threat of a sweet(a) entranceBargaining forefinger of providerBargaining great power of client ( procureer)Threat of substitute merchandiseDegree of competitive rivalryAll of those forces atomic number 18 real of the essence(predicate) to analysis any harvest-tide line organisation organisation, threat of refreshed entrance, provider negotiate power, customer talk terms power , substituted harvest, competitive rivalry all of these operation any railway line organisation, in to a lower place I am analysing those forces on ALDI and exhibit how IT helps ALDI to maintain and overcom e those factors and go ahead to its goal.04.1. Threat of the new entranceALDI is familiar retail shop, but t here argon some(a) reasons which create the threat of new entrance.Because of economic reason ALDI postulate to give lower outlay in diversity overlap but its not profitable. For new entrance its complicated to achieve goal to sell harvest-feast in lower impairment.Selling harvest-feast within lower price decrease the profit of an organisation and shambling it more than difficult to achieve goal (Mahdi Khosropour-2000), as a military issue exchanges event of lower price can be a risk for ALDI.Access to supply and statistical distribution is easy but sell is not high by new entrance.Product could be sale in alike price in difference store and ALDI but produce ar same in food retail industry so loyalty of customer is low.In these cases new entrance could be a threat for ALDI.But most of the customer of UK is brand aware, sometimes customer care brand more than price and ALDI have some of attractive return which attract the customer and attract them to ALDI.04.2. Bargaining power of supplierThis force indicates the power of supplier which can effect by the large grocery chain and maintenance the risk of large supermarket.As their have lashings of small supplier of product all over the UK so the dicker power of the supplier is fairly low for ALDI.As their have lots of supplier in market so any supplier dont want to lose their personal line of credit contract with a supermarket like ALDI, as a result ALDI gettingGood product within clean price.04.3. Bargaining power of buyersCustomers are always careful about price and their bargaining power is as well high in market, their have lots of opportunity to chose the right product on reasonable price (Edward J.szewczak. coral R Snudgrass-2002).Porter give tongue to that the more product that become standardized or undifferentiated, the lower the transmutation cost and hence more power is y ielded to buyers. (Porter M 1980)Their have (in market) lots of competitor of ALDI where slight difference of and more standardised as the faulting cost is low so buyer can move different brand too slowly.To convince the customer ALDI is talent difference types of promotional offer.ALDI photo voucherVoucher codeALDI discount codepromotional codeThese all are to convince customer as the bargaining power of buyers are high.04.4. Threat of substituted productThreat of substituted is really very high for ALDI, the large supermarket like TESCO, Sainsbury, ASDA, Morison they all are bringing same product at market so customer can be more attractive to them.If ALDI give the low price for substituted product whitethorn be their sell will increase but their have a risk of lose, as gaining profit is the main purpose of a moving in that why substituted product is being a threat of ALDI.04.5. Threat of new competitorThe threat of new competitor is nearly very low in food retail industry. W here lots of organisations are already doing business a new organisation lean achieve their goal easily (Dan Davis-2005) for a new retail industry its need a considerable investment beside major brand like TESCO, Sainsbury, ASDA, and Morison already captured the market. In these view threat of new entry is low for ALDI.05. How information technology effect on Porters five forces on ALDIInformation technology is a meld of study, development, application, implementation and support of computer based system. Information technology is using separately and all business organisation to achieve their goal easily and completely (Kathy Schwalbe-2010)ALDI is using information technology for its business purpose.In ululate I am explaining how information technology effect on ALDI (Porters five forces)Because of information technology all information is being spread to all over the world, as a result when ALDI was in new thought at market IT helps it to provide information to all custome r so on beginning ALDI got help from IT.Every business is being verbal expression with their supplier, IT helps ALDI to minimise the bargaining power of supplier, how do ALDI will stovepipe product in reasonable price and from where IT can gather knowledge very easily from difference ancestry of internet, so bargaining power of supplier decrees because of information technology.On the other hand, because of information technology bargaining power of buyer is being high, customers are being able to know about product too easily, customers can collect knowledge from difference source of IT like internet, advertisement of difference media like TV, magazine and newspaper.To minimise the bargaining power of customer ALDI also getting helpsFrom IT, ALDI is providing its promotional information to customer by advertising in difference way which is the part of IT.When any chain grocery market launch any new product on market ALDI take these information and try to create same category pro duct as a result ALDI can die hard itself with a new product.ALDI is an established chain shop, ALDI dont have too ofttimes threat of new competitors, when its impudence the threat of new competitors IT can help ALDI to reduce these threat.06. Value ChainTo provide the best customer any business doing the value chain analysis, Michel Porter introduce value chain analysis on business organisation, incoming logistic, operation, outbound logistic, marketing and sales, services, infrastructure, HR, technological development, procurement those all are included in value chain. (Michel Porter-1985). In below I am showing value chain as activities of an organisation.06.1. Activities of ALDIActivities meaning the work of any organisation, business activities means the business related work for any business organisation. Business activities helps any business cleanse their profit, how good a business doing is depends on the activities of those business (Kathy Schwalbe-2010), so chang e any business, business need to be more active and conscious about the business activities, their have 2 difference part of any retail business activities, so we can define the activities of ALDI in two parts, those ares-Primary activitySecondary activity06.1.1. Primary ActivitiesPrimary activities means the elemental work of any organisation, a business organisation is doing their immemorial activities to collect product from supplier, payment of supplier. Bring product to store, store product to warehouse, and decorate the product to shop floor, marketing of product, sales and delivery of product those all are part of primary activities. To distinguish easy the business activities all(prenominal) business organisation is doing their primary activities in two ways, which helps any business to complete their activities easily (Carroll W. Frenzel Jonn C. Frenzel-2004)ALDI is doing their primary activities in two ways- incoming logistic outgoing logisticProduct which are use for sale -receive, store and disseminating deal of those product is called logistic.Inbound logisticThe touch on of a business organisation collect product (product for sale) is called inbound logistic.The way ALDI is doing their inbound logistic those are-Every business need to order to their supplier for the product, thats the first of all work of inbound logistic, thats the first step of getting product , in these stage ALDI orders to their suppliers for productWhen ALDI orders to supplier, supplier approves the order and send product to the difference store of ALDITo get right product in right ALDI do kitting and sequencingFor quality control ALDI is doing inspection, replying and differencingALDI manage a good relationship and bills flow with supplier by vendorAnd managed inventoryWhen all the act become finish ALDI store the product in their warehouseOutbound LogisticGaining profit is the main purpose of any business organisation, without profit a business cant run their bus iness, to achieve profit business need to provide service or product or to customer(Mahdi Khosrowpour-2000). The process of a business organisation to distribute the product or service to customer is called outbound logistic.Process of outbound logistic in ALDI ALDI catch a process for its outbound Logistic, tradeSaleDeliveryMarketing The way business give knowledge to customer about their product is called marketing, to attract the nation about mickle business need to do marketing about product.Their have lots of way to do marketing, freehanded advertisement to difference media like newspaper, TV, magazine, talk to customer directly those all are way of marketing.To achieve any business you need to make aware about your product to customer, ALDI is making aware customer about their product by giving advertisement on difference media like newspaper, TV and magazine.Sale Sale is the one of major function of business (Dan Davis-2005), without sale a business cant earn profit.The w ay ALDI sale their product its as usual like any other retail shop, customer visit the shop and chose product, pay bill on till, ALDI also take phone reserve for special buys.Delivery Delivery the product to customer is the final part of outbound logistic, when customer chose any product and collect these product from shop floor and pay money on till product is ready for customer, if customer make a reservation for special buy, they have to be collect product from shop. In here I want to highlight that ALDI dont do home delivery.06.1.2. Secondary ActivitiesProcurement, technology development, human Resource, IT infrastructure those all are part of secondary activities (Michel E porter-2003)ProcurementProcurement is a process of purchase services and products, in this process preparation, processing, demand, receipt, payment approval all are included. In below in am showing the include process of procurement for ALDITo improve the business policy of ALDI, its following a procuremen t process, those all are-To buy product from supplier ALDI make a political platform for parchingALDI do standards of plan as its can buy best product within reasonable priceDevelopment of specificationTo get right product ALDI look into about supplier, by and by research its prefer the best supplier for put in product and claim the best supplier for productAnalysis of valueAfter analysis value ALDI find out the source of financeNegotiation of priceIn these stage ALDI make decision to do final purchaseContract to the administration is the next procurement process after final purchaseALDI control the inventory and store productAfter all of these processes as a final stage ALDI do disposals and related function of disposals.Technology DevelopmentTechnology development is research and development and the use of research and development, research of a product help to improve the quality of product, by researching its possible to develop the quality of product (Ronald Zigili-1992)A LDI is doing research with the product and service and developing new product, when any other retail shop bring a new product to market ALDI research those product and develop a give product and lunch it to market as result sales increase.Technology development helping ALDI to gain the aim of ALDI, increase sale is the most effective way to earn profit (Edward J. Szewczak. Coral R Snodgrass-2002) as sale is increasing because of technology development ALDI is gaining profit easily. man ResourceHuman imaginativeness or manpower is the main driving power for an organisation organisation cant do anything without human resource (Edward J. Szewczak. Coral R Snodgrass-2002). Human resource means the human power who is working with an organisation, technologies supporting us in every way of life, but human have to be manage the technology, without human resource technology cant do anything.For business purpose ALDI is recruiting human resource from difference sector, for managerial tak e aim to shop floor member. A huge number of people working for ALDI, after requite a tweet ALDI trained the stuff for best service, people who is directly related with customer service they can provide better customer service by getting training , managerial level people also getting training for better service .ALDI is selecting best people for its business organisation, to recruit best people ALDI is following the recruiting process, when ALDI need any stuff, they advertise on their website and collect the application from candidate , its select the best candidate , after selection candidate need to face on interview, ALDI select the best candidate by interview and take to all the quality of candidates, are they qualify for work or not, by doing all of these process ALDI is bringing best people for services.Overall, its clear that the people who is working with ALDI they are the best qualify and giving best service for organisation.InfrastructureInfrastructure is combine of pe ople, technology, system, procedures, policies, processes and intellectual property, all of these elements are co-related with each others.ALDI is maintaining a good relation with those chains as a result its being able to maintain a better organisation infrastructure. The stuff of ALDI is maintaining the chain of command so its being able to provide better service for customer and gaining profit easily.07. How information technology effect on value chain of ALDI immediately world is world of technology, any someone or any business organisation cant do anything properly without help of technology and information technology, as ALDI is an business organisation its cant do anything without use of information technology.Firstly, Information technology influence the primary activities of ALDI, inbound logistic to outbound logistic all of these process are being success properly because of information technology , information technology helps ALDI to collect products for supplier, onlin e order to supplier, granted order by supplier, sending process(transportation) those all are being done easily because of information technologyInformation technology working like blood circulation in business word, now days any business cant think about their business without help of information technology (Gerge Reynolds-2009).ALDI is doing marketing using advertisement of difference media like newspaper, website, TV magazine those all are part of information technology.Information technology is helping ALDI to develop their sale, attract customer by giving difference type of advertisement is increasing sale of ALDI, customer want to collect their product as early as they need, giving phone reservation to ALDI store is making easy for customer buying product and when they come to the store, ALDI deliver their product by checking phone reservation, which are the part of information technologyConsidering all of those issues, I can say that information technology influencing the pri mary activities of ALDI.Secondly, information technology is helping ALDI to make a better procurement process and all the process are being done by using of information technology , for technology development, research and develop a new product IT helps it to collect information from difference sources , manage and recruit human resource, maintaining IT infrastructure all are being possible by using of information technology.08. ConclusionToday is day of information technology information technology is affecting every step of life. Information technology is effecting the every business and every organisation, from the to a higher place we can see that how information technology influenced the business of ALDI, its also showing the how information technology helping ALDI ho to work in every step of business and how to overcome the risk of business, within less business how to achieve maximum goal of business, all of those policy are exposit on above.

Mandatory Second Language Learning: An Excellent Idea Essay example --

It has become common knowledge that the join States is fall behind the rest of the innovation. Economically, Industrially, and educationally, the rest of the world pushes forward and welcomes change duration the United States clings to what it has known for decades. One of the largest gaps between the US and the rest of the world is its policy about turn talking tos, and it puts the US at a disadvantage. Those who gibe change believe the US can better itself without making supplemental language education mandatory they argue that it will cost more(prenominal) money, turn students off to realizeing a second language entirely, and that the benefits be not worth the costs. Unless a change is made in the United States language education, the country will continue to fall behind. Making learning a second language mandatory not only helps students, that the country as a whole by raising the lug and improving the countrys competitiveness with the rest of the world.Many common wealth against second language learning argue that learning a second language is meaningless because it is never used after learning it and is curtly forgotten. The difficulty is the countrys secondary language education orders. sooner than teaching at a teenaged age, which they should, they make it mandatory at the high school level. Making children learn a second language at a young age is a better method because the earliest years of childhood are a critical limit and at a later time, the brains ability to learn a new language is greatly diminished (Richards). Another problem is that most often, there isnt enough repetition of what is learned in order for it to sink in to the memory of students. If taught at a young age and maintained throughout that students academic career, not... ...proxy.gc.maricopa.edu/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=23&sid=ce282cb3-71e8-42b2-9fbd-3f5cd0565bc4%40sessionmgr11&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3ddb=aph&AN=66695436.Metis, Myriam. A Cure For Monolingualism. Academic front Premier. EBSCO, Oct. 2008. Web. 12 Dec. 2011. .Richards, J. C., R. Anderson, D. W. Carroll, and A. Radford. Language Acquisition. Ebscohost. 11 Jan. 2011. Web. 08 Dec. 2011. .